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<title>Infrastructure as code</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Infrastructure as code</span></span>

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<p><b>Infrastructure as code</b> (<b>IaC</b>) is the process of managing and provisioning computer <a href="Data_center" title="Data center">data center</a> <a href="Resource" title="Resource">resources</a> through machine-readable definition files, rather than physical <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> configuration or interactive configuration tools.<sup id="cite_ref-AWS_in_Action,_IaC_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AWS_in_Action,_IaC-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The <a href="IT_infrastructure" title="IT infrastructure">IT infrastructure</a> managed by this process comprises both physical equipment, such as <a href="Bare-metal_server" title="Bare-metal server">bare-metal servers</a>, as well as <a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machines</a>, and associated configuration resources.

The definitions may be in a <a href="Version_Control_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Version Control System">version control system</a>, rather than maintaining the code through manual processes.

The code in the definition files may use either scripts or declarative definitions, but IaC more often employs <a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">declarative</a> approaches.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>IaC grew as a response to the difficulty posed by <a href="Utility_computing" title="Utility computing">utility computing</a> and second-generation web frameworks. In 2006, the launch of <a href="Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a>’ <a href="Elastic_Compute_Cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastic Compute Cloud">Elastic Compute Cloud</a> and the 1.0 version of <a href="Ruby_on_Rails" title="Ruby on Rails">Ruby on Rails</a> just months before<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> created widespread scaling difficulties in the enterprise that were previously experienced only at large, multi-national companies.<sup id="cite_ref-CCA_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With new tools emerging to handle this ever-growing field, the idea of IaC was born. The thought of modeling infrastructure with code, and then having the ability to design, implement, and deploy application infrastructure with known software best practices appealed to both software developers and IT infrastructure administrators. The ability to treat infrastructure as code and use the same tools as any other software project would allow developers to rapidly deploy applications.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2></div>

<p>The value of IaC can be broken down into three measurable categories: cost, speed, and risk. Cost reduction aims at helping not only the enterprise financially, but also in terms of people and effort, meaning that by removing the manual component, people are able to refocus their efforts on other enterprise tasks. Infrastructure automation enables speed through faster execution when configuring your infrastructure and aims at providing visibility to help other teams across the enterprise work quickly and more efficiently. Automation removes the risk associated with human error, like manual misconfiguration; removing this can decrease downtime and increase reliability. These outcomes and attributes help the enterprise move towards implementing a culture of <a href="DevOps" title="DevOps">DevOps</a>, the combined working of <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">development</a> and <a href="Information_technology_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Information technology operations">operations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_approaches">Types of approaches</h2></div>

<p>There are generally two approaches to IaC: <a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">declarative</a> (functional) vs. <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a> (procedural). The difference between the declarative and the imperative approach is essentially <i> 'what' </i> versus <i> 'how' </i>. The declarative approach focuses on what the eventual target configuration should be; the imperative focuses on how the <a href="Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> is to be changed to meet this.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The declarative approach defines the desired state and the system executes what needs to happen to achieve that desired state. Imperative defines specific commands that need to be executed in the appropriate order to end with the desired conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div>

<p>Infrastructure as Code (IaC) allows you to manage servers and their configurations using code. There are two ways to send these configurations to servers: the '<a href="Push_technology" title="Push technology">push</a>' and '<a href="Pull_technology" title="Pull technology">pull</a>' methods. In the 'push' method, the system controlling the configuration directly sends instructions to the server. In the 'pull' method, the server retrieves its own instructions from the controlling system.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools">Tools</h2></div>

<p>There are many tools that fulfill infrastructure automation capabilities and use IaC. Broadly speaking, any framework or tool that performs changes or configures infrastructure declaratively or imperatively based on a programmatic approach can be considered IaC.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, server (lifecycle) automation and <a href="Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">configuration management</a> tools were used to accomplish IaC. Now enterprises are also using continuous configuration automation tools or stand-alone IaC frameworks, such as Microsoft’s PowerShell DSC<sup id="cite_ref-powershell_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-powershell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="AWS_CloudFormation" title="AWS CloudFormation">AWS CloudFormation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuous_configuration_automation">Continuous configuration automation</h3></div>

<p>All <a href="Continuous_configuration_automation" title="Continuous configuration automation">continuous configuration automation</a> (CCA) tools can be thought of as an extension of traditional IaC frameworks. They leverage IaC to change, configure, and automate infrastructure, and they also provide visibility, efficiency and flexibility in how infrastructure is managed.<sup id="cite_ref-CCA_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These additional attributes provide enterprise-level security and compliance.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Community_content">Community content</h4></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_systems_management_systems" title="List of systems management systems">List of systems management systems</a> and <a href="Comparison_of_open-source_configuration_management_software" title="Comparison of open-source configuration management software">Comparison of open-source configuration management software</a></div>

<p>Community content is a key determinant of the quality of an open source CCA tool. As <a href="Gartner" title="Gartner">Gartner</a> states, the value of CCA tools is "as dependent on user-community-contributed content and support as it is on the commercial maturity and performance of the automation tooling".<sup id="cite_ref-CCA_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Established vendors such as <a href="Puppet_(software)" title="Puppet (software)">Puppet</a> and <a href="Chef_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chef (software)">Chef</a> have created their own communities. Chef has <a href="Chef_Community_Repository" class="mw-redirect" title="Chef Community Repository">Chef Community Repository</a> and Puppet has <a href="PuppetForge" class="mw-redirect" title="PuppetForge">PuppetForge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other vendors rely on adjacent communities and leverage other IaC frameworks such as <a href="PowerShell" title="PowerShell">PowerShell</a> DSC.<sup id="cite_ref-powershell_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-powershell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New vendors are emerging that are not content-driven, but model-driven with the intelligence in the product to deliver content. These visual, object-oriented systems work well for developers, but they are especially useful to production-oriented DevOps and operations constituents that value models versus scripting for content. As the field continues to develop and change, the community-based content will become ever more important to how IaC tools are used, unless they are model-driven and object-oriented.

</p><p>Notable CCA tools include:

</p>

<th>Released by</th>

<th>Method</th>

<th>Approach</th>

<th>Written in</th>

<th>Comments

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="CFEngine" title="CFEngine">CFEngine</a>

</th>

<td>Northern.tech (1993)

</td>

<td>Pull

</td>

<td>Declarative

</td>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Puppet_(software)" title="Puppet (software)">Puppet</a>

</th>

<td>Puppet (2005)

</td>

<td>Push and Pull

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

<td><a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> & <a href="Clojure" title="Clojure">Clojure</a> since 4.0, <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Chef (2009)

</td>

<td>Pull

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="SaltStack" class="mw-redirect" title="SaltStack">SaltStack</a>

</th>

<td>SaltStack (2011)

</td>

<td>Push and Pull

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

<td><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Ansible_(software)" title="Ansible (software)">Ansible</a> / <a href="Ansible_(software)#Ansible_Automation_Platform" title="Ansible (software)">Ansible Tower</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Red_Hat" title="Red Hat">Red Hat</a> (2012)

</td>

<td>Push and Pull

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

<td><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Terraform_(software)" title="Terraform (software)">Terraform</a>

</th>

<td><a href="HashiCorp" title="HashiCorp">HashiCorp</a> (2014)

</td>

<td>Push

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Otter_(software)" title="Otter (software)">Otter</a>

</th>

<td>Inedo (2015)

</td>

<td>Push

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

<td>-

</td>

<td>Windows-oriented

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Pulumi" title="Pulumi">Pulumi</a>

</th>

<td>Pulumi (2018)

</td>

<td>Push

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

</td>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="OpenTofu" title="OpenTofu">OpenTofu</a>

</th>

<td><a href="Linux_Foundation" title="Linux Foundation">Linux Foundation</a> and contributors (2023)

</td>

<td>Push

</td>

<td>Declarative and imperative

</td>

</td>

<td>Terraform fork

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Other tools include <a href="AWS_CloudFormation" title="AWS CloudFormation">AWS CloudFormation</a>, <a href="Cdist" title="Cdist">cdist</a>, <a href="StackStorm" title="StackStorm">StackStorm</a>, <a href="Juju_(software)" title="Juju (software)">Juju</a>, and Step CI.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationships">Relationships</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_DevOps">Relationship to DevOps</h3></div>

<p>IaC can be a key attribute of enabling best practices in <a href="DevOps" title="DevOps">DevOps</a>. Developers become more involved in defining configuration and Ops teams get involved earlier in the development process.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tools that utilize IaC bring visibility to the state and configuration of servers and ultimately provide the visibility to users within the enterprise, aiming to bring teams together to maximize their efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Automation in general aims to take the confusion and error-prone aspect of manual processes and make it more efficient, and productive. Allowing for better software and applications to be created with flexibility, less downtime, and an overall cost-effective way for the company. IaC is intended to reduce the complexity that kills efficiency out of manual configuration. Automation and collaboration are considered central points in DevOps; infrastructure automation tools are often included as components of a <a href="DevOps_toolchain" title="DevOps toolchain">DevOps toolchain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_security">Relationship to security</h3></div>

<p>The 2020 Cloud Threat Report released by Unit 42 (the threat intelligence unit of cybersecurity provider <a href="Palo_Alto_Networks" title="Palo Alto Networks">Palo Alto Networks</a>) identified around 200,000 potential vulnerabilities in infrastructure as code templates.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Docker_(software)" title="Docker (software)"> Docker</a></li>

<li><a href="IT_infrastructure" title="IT infrastructure">IT infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrastructure_as_a_service" title="Infrastructure as a service">Infrastructure as a service</a></li>

<li><a href="Orchestration_(computing)" title="Orchestration (computing)">Orchestration</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuous_configuration_automation" title="Continuous configuration automation">Continuous configuration automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Landing_zone_(software)" title="Landing zone (software)">Landing zone (software)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFAWS_in_ActionWittig2016" class="citation book cs1">Wittig, Andreas; Wittig, Michael (2016). <i>Amazon Web Services in Action</i>. Manning Press. p. 93. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-61729-288-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBowerChristensen" class="citation journal cs1">Bower, Joseph L.; Christensen, Clayton M. "Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave". <i><a href="Harvard_Business_Review" title="Harvard Business Review">Harvard Business Review</a></i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-CCA-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CCA_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCA_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCA_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFletcherCosgrove2015" class="citation report cs1">Fletcher, Colin; Cosgrove, Terrence (26 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gartner.com/document/3119319?ref=unauthreader">Innovation Insight for Continuous Configuration Automation Tools</a>. <i>Gartner</i> (Report).</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRiley2015" class="citation journal cs1">Riley, Chris (12 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://devops.com/version-your-infrastructure/">"Version Your Infrastructure"</a>. <i>DevOps.com</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2015" class="citation web cs1">Phillips, Andrew (14 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://devops.com/2015/05/14/moving-from-infrastructure-automation-to-true-devops/">"Moving from Infrastructure Automation to True DevOps"</a>. <i>DevOps.com</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

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